The China’s People’s Liberation Army (PLA) has historically stressed the importance of careful planning and preparation before an offensive operation. This focus continues in the post-reform PLA Army (PLAA), where offensive actions are developed, rehearsed, revised, and carefully executed whenever possible. Meticulous planning allows for integrating capabilities, developing tight security measures, and building an effective deception plan. While devoting more time for planning may reduce speed in the short term, the PLAA believes that a well-constructed and well-rehearsed plan ultimately saves time and increases operational speed.
PLAA offensive operations are objective-based: the higher echelon commander designates an objective and specifies a force charged with accomplishing it. Mao’s “People’s War” principles dictate that objectives should typically be enemy formations, although key terrain or other valuable assets may also be considered. The attacking force identifies key features in the defense and terrain, including disposition of enemy forces, points of strength and weakness, and locations of reserves and fire support. The offensive action is then designed to rapidly confuse and isolate the enemy, reducing its morale and enabling freedom of action for PLAA commanders. Through a combination of careful planning, effective deception, rapid movement, and application of decisive combat power at key times and locations, the enemy comes to believe its position to be untenable and it must either withdraw or face annihilation. Once the enemy force is in retreat, PLAA reserve forces maintain contact and pursue the enemy while additional forces secure the area and prepare for follow-on operations.
BUILD THE COMMAND SYSTEM
A PLAA offensive operation entails at least two, but ideally all four, of the command posts discussed in the previous article. The base command post is the commander’s primary location during an offensive, and it should be located to best coordinate between the frontline, depth, and thrust maneuver groups. The advance command post, if established during an offensive, is led by the deputy commander and is typically located near the main defensive line. The rear command post’s primary role is to organize logistics and reinforcements and to create the backup defensive line supporting the offensive action. If possible, a reserve command post is established along a possible route of egress or in a well-defended rear location, ready to take over for the base or advance command post should either of them come under threat during an offensive. At the combined arms battalion echelon, the command and limited staff may be decentralized rather than physically co-located.
The offensive battlefield is further subdivided into between two and four operational zones, each with a specific set of objectives and tactics. These zones are deep area, frontline zone, reserve zone, and garrison zone. While the PLAA used to be highly prescriptive about the physical sizes of these zones, it has gradually moved to a more flexible approach. The various zones should account for terrain, friendly and enemy capabilities, and higher echelon missions, and they should enable careful integration of various units and capabilities.
Deep Area. The deep area is the territory past which a unit’s organic sensors and weapons can operate. For a combined arms brigade, this typically means the area past which its rocket artillery and targeting support can operate. The fight in the deep area usually consists of independent special operations forces (SOF) or scout units supported by manned or unmanned aircraft (UA), possibly augmented by supporting fires from long-range shooters assigned to support the offensive action. Reconnaissance, counter-reconnaissance, fire, counterfire, screening, and blocking all take place in deep areas. The purpose of deep-area operations is to provide early reconnaissance, target long-range preparatory fires, and carefully assess enemy strength and disposition in preparation for an offensive action.
Frontline Zone. The frontline zone contains the territory in which the main offensive action is to occur. Early objectives, along with the enemy’s main defensive line, are typically located in the frontline zone. The frontline attack group is the primary occupant of this zone, and the depth group may also occupy the area, depending on terrain and enemy disposition. The advance command post, if present, is usually forward in the zone, and the base command post is typically located either rearward in this zone or in the zone immediately behind it. The entire frontline zone should be within the range of the offensive group’s organic fire support. The frontline zone typically contains a security zone on its forward edge, where security, reconnaissance, and counter-reconnaissance activities take place. The primary battle takes place in the frontline zone, with the intent of breaching the enemy’s main defensive line and enabling the depth and thrust maneuver groups to move into enemy rear areas.
Reserve Zone. The reserve zone lies just to the rear of the frontline zone and typically houses the depth attack group, thrust maneuvering group, reserve group, command groups, firepower groups, and forward logistics bases. The reserve zone also usually contains a defensive line intended to resist enemy counterattacks into rear areas, and serves as the anchor for the offensive action. The reserve command post, if present, is typically located in this zone, as is the rear command post.
Garrison Zone. Rear areas not actively occupied by the offensive group make up the garrison zone. Augmentations and reinforcements may reside in this zone, or it may serve as an assembly area for another offensive group preparing to conduct follow-on operations. Supporting capabilities such as logistics, electronic warfare (EW) assets, and long-range artillery reside here. Garrison zones typically contain one or more security zones that surround key positions, such as bases, supply routes, or command posts. The People’s Armed Police (PAP) may take on much of the security load in garrison zones in order to free up PLAA forces for more intense duties.
PHASES OF THE OFFENSE
The PLAA’s offensive operations are divided into phases in much the same way that U.S. Army operations are organized. While an operation may have many phases depending on the breadth and complexity of the mission, in most cases it will involve five primary phases: advance, unfold, initiate, annihilate, and continuing operations.
Advance. The advance, also called the moving-in, is the initial phase of an offensive operation. This traditionally referred to the movement of a main body from a staging or assembly area to the initial point of attack. For a modern force, this understanding has expanded to include the full breadth of activities that occur between when the mission is received and initial contact is made. These activities include, but are not limited to—
The advance begins upon receipt of an order. Reconnaissance groups are rapidly deployed to determine possible routes of advance, enemy strength and disposition, and key terrain features. The commander develops an initial scheme of maneuver that outlines objectives, establishes a basic concept, and enables subordinate units to establish contact and rapidly close with enemy defenses. Concealment of movement and deception operations are critical during the advance phase. It is at this time that the commander can most influence enemy actions, dispositions, and mindset. As the main body moves to the point of contact, supporting capabilities conduct concurrent missions, including preparatory fire support, counterfire, information warfare activities, and mobility and countermobility activities. Commanders continuously assess enemy positions to decide on a final course of action while trying to manipulate the enemy’s mindset and conceal their own intentions. As reconnaissance groups develop the situation, the commander decides on a final course of action.
Security during the advance is also of the utmost importance. Deception operations can only be successful if enemy reconnaissance operations are neutralized, spoofed, or defeated by friendly counter-reconnaissance. Security elements ensure that main body movement is unhindered by enemy attack, countermobility efforts, or deception activities. Air defense and protection operations ensure that the main body is not attritted by enemy air attack and artillery during staging or movement.
The advance phase ends when the main body makes contact with the enemy and the commander initiates actions on contact.
Unfold. The unfold phase consists of actions designed to set conditions for annihilation that occur upon initial contact by the main body with enemy defenses. Subordinate units conduct rapid movement in accordance with the commander’s scheme of maneuver, seeking to position themselves appropriately for the decisive phases of the operation. Following initial contact, units maintain contact with the enemy and continue to develop situational understanding. Key intelligence requirements not yet answered by reconnaissance groups are resolved by main body actions. During initial contact, the commander tries to conceal the direction, strength, and objective of the main effort through deception, information warfare activities, feints, and demonstrations. Other activities during the unfold phase include, but are not limited to—
The primary goal of the unfold phase is to ensure that the objective is isolated and contending with numerous dangers, preferably from multiple directions. The enemy commander should be confused and enemy forces disrupted. The enemy, however, should not yet know either the direction or strength of the main effort. The entire unfold phase should be orderly and well planned in order to ensure concealment and correct positioning of friendly units. Movement should be rapid, but not so fast that confusion sets in or concealment is broken.
The best practice of the unfold phase is to encircle the enemy or to convince the enemy it is encircled. Encirclement refers to the complete isolation of the enemy force through a combination of friendly ground unit actions, firepower, deception, psychological warfare, and EW. Encirclement does not necessarily mean that an enemy is actually physically surrounded. A combination of lethal and nonlethal capabilities may be sufficient to cause the enemy to believe itself encircled. For example, a well-timed artillery raid may cause the enemy to believe that a route is cut off or unavailable, without requiring the commitment of additional PLAA ground forces. Similarly, disinformation passed over communications channels may deceive the enemy into believing it does not have access to a particular route or terrain, without requiring friendly forces to physically occupy the area in question.
The unfold phase ends when the main effort commences.
Initiate. The initiate phase begins when the main effort commences its assault against the objective. This phase often begins with a massive assault wherein fire support groups target enemy command nodes, critical systems, mobile reinforcements, and other high-value targets. Supporting efforts continue to develop the situation. Units charged with fixing enemy units continue to prevent them from reinforcing the main objective, while counter-reinforcement groups preclude the commitment of enemy reserves. The main effort is typically the primary assault upon the enemy’s center of gravity: that thing—be it a headquarters, a unit, or a piece of terrain—that is most essential to the enemy’s morale and mindset. Ideally, the enemy will either withdraw, collapse, or be routed once the center of gravity is seized or destroyed. Other activities during the initiate phase include, but are not limited to—
Attacks are launched from multiple directions simultaneously, forcing the enemy commander to make decisions about force deployment. If possible, the enemy commander’s decision cycle is interrupted—or, better yet, influenced—so that reinforcements or other maneuvers do not concentrate in opposition to the main effort. The main effort employs substantial force concentration to achieve local firepower and numeric superiority over the enemy, enabling defeat of the enemy’s forces in detail and maintaining the initiative. Fire support is weighted heavily in support of the main effort’s assault.
The main effort targets one or more primary objectives as a part of the assault on the enemy’s center of gravity. These may include enemy command posts, assembly areas, reserve forces, artillery units, or network nodes. The main effort seeks weak points in the enemy’s defense, then moves rapidly to penetrate them. Follow-on forces help to secure the main effort, fix or deceive remaining enemy forces, and preclude enemy reinforcement. Groups—possibly airborne, air assault, SOF, or militia—located to the flanks and rear of the enemy secure key terrain to prevent outside reinforcement of the enemy formation while encircling the objective. Supporting groups ensure that enemy counterattacks—particularly counterencirclement—are spoiled, disrupted, neutralized, or defeated before they can affect the main effort.
The initiate phase is complete once the main effort seizes the enemy center of gravity.
Annihilate. The annihilate phase commences after the enemy is confused and demoralized following the seizure or fall of its center of gravity. Enemy units should be isolated, with communications to their higher echelons disrupted and routes for reinforcement either cut off or unusable. The enemy is encircled, either physically or psychologically, and mutual support between enemy units is no longer possible. Decisive attacks are conducted throughout the combat area, seeking to destroy isolated enemy units before retreat and a prepared defense are possible. Fire support is used aggressively in brief but violent volleys to suppress and demoralize enemy units prior to assaults. Special focus is given to ensuring that the enemy cannot break out of the annihilation zone. Security and countermobility efforts slow or stop movement before enemy units can escape.
Once the enemy recognizes that one of its units is facing annihilation, a strong response is likely inevitable. Enemy air and artillery units will try to target friendly formations to suppress or disrupt friendly attacks. Antiair and artillery groups must be prepared to conduct counterair and counterfire operations in response. Other enemy ground formations will try to reinforce their besieged units. Friendly security forces must defend stubbornly and disrupt, slow, or defeat these attempts until the objective force has been annihilated.
The annihilate phase ends once the objective force has been destroyed, routed, or has surrendered.
Continuing Operations. Continuing operations commence immediately when it is clear that the objective force has been destroyed, routed, or has surrendered. The remainder of the enemy force loses cohesion in the face of decisive attacks throughout the combat area, and widespread withdrawal or retreat follows. The main focus during this phase of the operation is pursuit of these fleeing enemies. High-tempo operations continue to maintain contact with these enemy forces during their retrograde, defeating rear-guard security actions and preventing the enemy from consolidating to form a coherent defense. Counter-reinforcement groups continue to defeat enemy attempts to reinforce the area by either defeating enemy forces, spoiling enemy attacks, or conducting countermobility operations.
When continuing operations commence, the commander begins assessing follow-on opportunities. For example, if defeating the enemy unit created a breach in the enemy’s main defensive line, an opportunity for envelopment or penetration may be present. Similarly, the enemy unit’s defeat may create an opportunity for the PLA to highlight the success of the operation to influence public opinion. Units may begin transition from combat postures to movement postures in accordance with the scheme of maneuver. However, if a unit redeploys into march order too soon, it may be vulnerable to enemy counterattack. If it waits too long, opportunities for penetration or envelopment may be lost.
The PLAA unit must also consolidate. Consolidation comprises three primary activities: performing security activities, reorganizing and reconstituting friendly units, and conducting passage of lines. Security activities consist of securing the combat area against enemy reconnaissance and counterattack and ensuring that friendly forces entering the area are not subject to threat from bypassed enemy elements or irregular forces. Reorganization and reconstitution are those activities that enable the unit to conduct resupply, replacement of lost or damaged equipment, casualty processing, and receipt of reinforcements. Passage of lines takes place when one unit passes through another’s combat area, typically with the intent to resume offensive operations against the enemy. Passage of lines can be a complex task, and it is enabled by effective control measures, communications, and planning.
This meticulous planning involved in the PLAA’s operations, coupled with the trend toward modularity and decentralized command, will allow the PLAA greater flexibility in conflict. As technology advances, modularity and decentralization could increase the effectiveness of Chinese units in a theater as geographically dispersed as the INDOPACOM area of responsibility.